The common law’s fictional contrivance to treat “substantial certainty” of harm as equivalent to an intention of harm, for purposes of liability in battery and the other intentional torts, is in part an implicit recognition that substantially certain injurers are often no less culpable than intentional injurers and thus properly exposed to a similar scope of liability. To be sure, this fictional contrivance serves multiple ends; so, for example, substantial certainty can function as an evidential proxy for an actual intention of harm, thus obviating the difficulties that might attend a plaintiff’s attempt to establish that the defendant actually intended her harm. But such a function could also be served by treating substantial certainty as raising an extremely strong but defeasible inference of actual intent and imposing upon the defendant the burden of undercutting this inference. That no such modification of the current regime has been entertained is some further indication that the fiction also serves other ends.
过去一年，中国特色大国外交取得新成效。习近平主席等党和国家领导人出访多国，出席中国—中亚峰会、亚太经合组织领导人非正式会议、金砖国家领导人线上峰会、二十国集团领导人峰会等重大多双边活动。成功举办上海合作组织天津峰会、全球妇女峰会、中拉论坛第四届部长级会议等重大主场外交活动。坚决反对保护主义和单边霸凌行径，坚定维护多边主义和开放合作，坚定捍卫二战胜利成果，提出全球治理倡议，推动构建人类命运共同体，在应对全球性挑战和解决国际地区热点问题中发挥积极建设性作用。中国为促进世界和平与发展作出了重要贡献。
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